Examining Digital Formative Assessment Challenges through the TPACK Lens in Tertiary EFL Classrooms

Digital formative assessment (DFA) is increasingly adopted in higher education to enhance feedback and support continuous learning. However, its implementation remains challenging in practice. Guided by the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, this study examines the challenges of implementing DFA in tertiary English as a Foreign Language classrooms. A qualitative multiple-case study was conducted at a public university in Vietnam, involving six EFL teachers. Across the six cases, data were collected through 18 classroom observations and 30 semi-structured interviews conducted throughout one course. Data was analysed using thematic analysis, combining deductive coding based on TPACK domains with inductive identification of emerging themes. The findings show that DFA challenges are interconnected across TPACK domains. Technological constraints disrupted participation and increased workload, while digital tools were often used superficially, with limited feedback and data use. Pedagogical issues, including uneven participation and classroom management difficulties, persisted. Content-related constraints led to simplified tasks, which limited assessment depth. Most importantly, the main challenges arose from difficulties in integrating technology, pedagogy, and content, which resulted in fragmented and misaligned DFA practices.