[1] Ali, H. A. (2021). Using a program based on online debate to develop EFL majors’ speaking skills and reduce their speaking anxiety. CDELT Occasional Papers in the Development of English Education, 76(1), 169–203. https://doi.org/10.21608/ opde.2021.226280
[2] Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.
[3] Bui, T., & Newton, J. (2021). PPP in action: Insights from primary EFL lessons in Vietnam. Language Teaching for Young Learners, 3(1), 72–92. https:// doi.org/10.1075/ltyl.00022.bui
[4] Chen, X., & Zhang, L. J. (2022). Teacher feedback, self-efficacy, and oral performance in Chinese EFL classrooms. Language Teaching Research. Advance online publication. org/10.1177/13621688221079121
[5] Dao, T. Y. (2024). Employing debate technique to enhance speaking confidence for Vietnamese EFL learners in college. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 10(5), 75–92. https://doi. org/10.46827/ejsss.v10i5.1716
[6] Dörnyei, Z., & Schmidt, R. W. (Eds.). (2001). Motivation and second language acquisition. Honolulu, HI: Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
[7] El Majidi, A., De Graaff, R., & Janssen, D. (2021). Debate as a pedagogical tool for developing speaking skills in second language education. Language Teaching Research, 28(6), 2431–2452. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211050619
[8] Fan, J., & Yan, X. (2020). Assessing speaking proficiency: A narrative review of speaking assessment research within the argument-based validation framework. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 330. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00330
[9] Ghafar, Z. (2023). The influence of self-confidence on English language learning: A systematic review. International Journal of Applied Educational Research, 1(1), 55–68.
[10] Ho, K., & Truong, N. (2022). Exploring Vietnamese non-English-majored freshmen’s English-speaking anxiety at a public university in Vietnam. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 38(5), 1–15. https:// js.vnu.edu.vn/FS/article/view/4789
[11] Ho-Minh, N., & Suppasetseree, S. (2025). Enhancing Vietnamese EFL students’ speaking skills through augmented reality: A mixed-method study in English for tourism and hospitality. Smart Learning Environments, 12(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s40561-025-00284-5
[12] Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125–132. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05256.x
[13] Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon.
[14] Le, V. C., & Pham, T. T. (2023). Self-confidence and oral performance among Vietnamese university students. Journal of Asia TEFL, 20(1), 115–128. https://doi.org/10.18823/asiatefl.2023.20.1.115
[15] Linh, P. T. D. (2024). The use of debate technique to develop students’ speaking skills. Journal of Science Educational Science, 71–82. https://doi. org/10.18173/2354-1075.2024-0048
[16] Lumbangaol, R. R., & Mazali, M. R. (2020). Improving students’ speaking ability through debate technique. Celtic: A Journal of Culture, English Language Teaching, Literature and Linguistics, 7(2), 163 172. https://doi.org/10.22219/celtic.v7i2.11291
[17] Ly, T. T. (2020). Difficulties encountered by students at a university in Vietnam in speaking English. International Journal of Social Science and Human Research, 3(5), 1013–1016. https://doi. org/10.47191/ijsshr/v3-i5-22
[18] Ma, L., Du, X., Hau, K.-T., & Liu, J. (2017). The association between teacher-student relationship and academic achievement in Chinese EFL context: A serial multiple mediation model. Educational Psychology, 38(6), 687–707. https://doi.org/10.10 80/01443410.2017.1363377
[19] MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 545–562. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb05543.x
[20] Pham, T. N., & Bui, L. T. P. (2019). An exploration of students’ voices on the English graduation benchmark policy across Northern, Central and Southern Vietnam. Language Testing in Asia, 9(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-019-0078-4
[21] Pham, A. T., Hong, H. T., Chau, T. T., Le, N. V. A., Tran, P. T. T., & Nguyen, M. N. N. (2021). The relationships between students’ self-confidence and their English-speaking performance: A case study of English-majored students at a private university in Vietnam. European Journal of Education Studies, 8(9). https://doi.org/10.46827/ejes.v8i9.3872
[22] Piaget, J. (1970). Piaget’s theory. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael’s manual of child psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 703–732). Wiley.
[23] Sun, Y. (2021). The effect of teacher caring behavior and teacher praise on students’ engagement in EFL classrooms. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 746871. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.746871
[24] Tarigan, M. R., & Lubis, Y. (2024). Qualitative findings on the impact of debate techniques on English language speaking competence. Journal of Educational Development, 12(2), 84–97.
[25] Tran, L. T., & Marginson, S. (2018). Internationalisation of Vietnamese higher education: An overview. In L. T. Tran & S. Marginson (Eds.), Internationalisation in Vietnamese higher education (pp. 1–16). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10 8130-9_1
[26] Tran, T. T., & Trung, V. T. (2022). Difficulties encountered by students at a university in Vietnam in speaking English. International Journal of Social Science and Human Research, 5(3), 1013 1016. https://doi.org/10.47191/ijsshr/v5-i3-39
[27] Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge University Press.
[28] Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
[29] Wang, Y., & Jiang, J. (2023). The relationship between teacher care behavior and EFL learning anxiety: The chain mediation effect of learning engagement and learning strategies. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1279025. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2023.1279025
[30] Zhang, W. (2021). Speaking anxiety and EFL performance: Evidence from Chinese learners. System, 98, 102431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. system.2021.102431

